Module 9.1Prenatal Development: A Case of Nature and Nurture
Module 9.2Infant Development
Module 9.3Years of Discovery: Emotional, Social, and
Cognitive Development in Childhood
Module 9.4Adolescence
Module 9.5Early and Middle Adulthood
Module 9.6Late Adulthood
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Module 9.1
Prenatal Development:
A Case of Nature
and Nurture
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Developmental Psychology is the branch of psychology that studies the changes that occur during the lifespan, ranging from conception through death.
Maturation is the unfolding of one’s genetic blueprint.
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| Stage | Approximate Ages |
| Prenatal period | Conception to birth |
| Infancy period | Birth to 1 year |
| Toddler period | 1 to 3 years |
| Preschool period | 3 to 6 years |
| Middle childhood | 6 to 12 years |
| Adolescence | 12 to 18 years |
| Young adulthood | 18 to 40 years |
| Middle adulthood | 40 to 65 years |
| Late adulthood | 65 years and older |
Here we see the range of different developmental periods with some approximate age ranges. These are not fixed, however, and may differ slightly from one theory to another.
Prenatal development extends from conception to birth. Many important developments occur before birth.
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Germinal stage
From fertilization to implantation in wall
of uterus
Embryonic stage
From implantation to about the 8th week
of pregnancy
Fetal stage
Begins around 9th week
and continues until birth
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Dance of Life In this remarkable photograph, a single sperm is attempting to penetrate the egg covering. If
it succeeds, the genetic material from both parents will combine into a single cell that marks the beginning of
a new life.
© David M. Phillips/Science Source
A discussion of the prenatal period must include a brief review of the process and key players in conception:
Ovulation – an ovum is released from a mother’s ovary, which begins traveling down the fallopian tube. If it is fertilized by a sperm cell, the result is a zygote, which is a one-cell fertilized ovum with 46 chromosomes (in normal developmental cases).
We can divide prenatal development into three stages as shown here.
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Stages
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© Cengage Learning
1
2
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7
The germinal stage lasts from conception to about 2 weeks. During this stage, rapid cell division occurs, and the mass of cells migrates to the uterus and begins to be implanted into the uterine wall.
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The zygote becomes an embryo after it implants into the lining of the uterus.
The neural tube forms about
3 weeks after conception, and
it will develop into the
nervous system.
© Cengage Learning
The embryonic stage lasts from about 2 weeks to about 2 months and is the period when most of the vital organs and bodily systems such as the heart, spine, and brain emerge. The embryonic period is a time of great vulnerability; if anything interferes with development during this time period, effects can be devastating.
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© Cengage Learning
The embryo, and later the fetus, lie within a protective environment in the uterus called the amniotic sac. Nutrients are exchanged with the mother through the placenta. The umbilical cord connects the embryo and fetus to the placenta.
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© Cengage Learning
The fetal stage lasts from about 2 months to birth. During the early parts of this stage, the muscles and bones begin to form. The body continues to grow and function, with sex organs developing in the 3rd month and brain cells multiplying during the final 3 months.
Here we see how the risks of the embryonic stage can extend into the fetal stage.
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Maternal Nutrition
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© Cengage Learning
A developing baby and its mother are linked through the placenta, and a mother’s behaviors can affect the healthy of the fetus dramatically.
Severe maternal malnutrition is linked to increased risk of birth complications and neurological problems in the newborn.
These can include having a premature birth and a low birthweight baby. A deficit of folic acid (a B vitamin) can lead to spina bifida. Pregnant women need to eat properly and take appropriate vitamins.
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Teratogens
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A teratogen is an environmental influence that may harm a developing baby during the prenatal period.
Infections diseases can, in some cases, be teratogenic. Rubella (German measles) can cause several different problems, including heart disease, deafness, and intellectual disability in an unborn child. Some STIs, including HIV/AIDS and syphilis can also be transmitted from mother to child and can be teratogenic.
Maternal drug use can significantly impact a developing baby, even if the drugs are legal, like alcohol and cigarettes. Many drugs, both prescription and recreational, are linked to birth defects. Problems can even be caused by some over the counter drugs.
Fetal alcohol syndrome, one of the leading causes of intellectual disability, is a collection of congenital (inborn) problems associated with alcohol use during pregnancy. The risk of FAS increases with heavy use, but there is no recognized safe limit for alcohol intake during pregnancy.
Current studies suggest that even normal social drinking during pregnancy can have enduring negative effects on children, including deficits in IQ, reaction time, motor skills, attention span, and math skills, as well as impulsive, antisocial, and delinquent behavior.
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Module 9.2
Infant Development
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Rooting reflex
Babinski reflex
Eyeblink reflex
Palmar grasp reflex
Sucking reflex
Moro reflex
© Petit Format/Science Source
© Cathy Melloan/PhotoEdit, Inc,
© Elizabeth Crews/The Image Works
The infant is equipped with basic reflexes at birth. Most newborn reflexes disappear within the first 6 months of life.
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Vision
Blurry, but can recognize
Mom’s face
Preferences for
face-like patterns
By 1 month can visually track
a moving object
Basic color vision develops
by about 2 months
Depth perception develops
by around 6 months
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© 2003 PhotoDisc/Getty Images (top); © Mark Richards/PhotoEdit (bottom)
The newborn’s vision may be limited, but its perceptual world is not one of blooming confusion. Even the newborn can form visual discriminations needed to recognize Mom’s face and will also show preference for facelike patterns.
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Hearing
Particularly sensitive to sounds
within frequency of human voice
Can discern mother’s voice from other voices
Just hours after birth can differentiate sounds in native language from those in a
foreign tongue
By several months can discriminate between
various speech sounds
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© elwynn/Shutterstock.com
Auditory discrimination also exists at birth and develops further during the first few months of life.
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Smell
At 5–6 days can detect mother’s odor
React appropriately to repulsive scents
Taste
Can discriminate among different tastes
Show preferences for sweetness
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Likewise, infants can make other discriminations based on the senses of smell and taste.
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Perceptual Ability
Not blooming, buzzing confusion of meaningless stimuli at birth
Can begin to make meaningful discriminations among stimuli shortly after birth
By 4–6 months can discriminate among different
facial expressions
Learning Ability
Able to learn simple responses
Able to retain memories of learned responses
Show memory of faces at 6–7 months
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Infants may seem to do little more than sleep, eat, and excrete, but have more perceptual and learning abilities than many people recognize.
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Reflexes slowly replaced with voluntary purposive movements (e.g., bringing objects to the mouth, grasping objects)
By about two months: Able to lift chin
By about five months: Able to roll over
By about nine months: Sits without support
By about 1 year: Stands without support
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Here we see some of the major landmarks in motor development in the first year.
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Module 9.3
Years of Discovery: Emotional, Social, and Cognitive Development in Childhood
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Three general types
Easy children
Difficult children
Slow-to-warm-up children
Predicts later differences
in adjustment
Shaped by both nature
and nurture
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© Olinchuk/Shutterstock.com (top); © photobank.ch/Shutterstock.com (bottom)
Temperament refers to the child’s general disposition or behavioral characteristics. Investigators identify three major types of infant temperaments: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up.
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Is a close bond between
child and caregiver
Does not form immediately after birth
Is not the same as “bonding”
Is seen in many
animal species, when
imprinting occurs
© Jonathan Nourok/PhotoEdit
Attachment refers to the close, emotional bonds of affection that develop between infants and their caregivers. Bonding is the process by which parents develop strong ties to the child.
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© Nina Leen/Time & Life Pictures/Getty Images
Psychologist Harry Harlow conducted a now-famous study in which he removed monkeys from their mothers at birth and raised them in a laboratory with two different kinds of substitute mothers – a “cloth mother” and a “wire mother”. Half the monkeys were fed from a bottle attached to the cloth mother, and half were fed by the wire mother.
Harlow discovered that the infant monkeys showed preferences for the “cloth mother,” regardless of which substitute mother fed them. When frightened, the monkeys – regardless of which mother fed them – sought comfort from the “cloth mother,” pointing to a strong attachment and need for contact comfort.
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Secure
Insecure-avoidant
Insecure-resistant
Disorganized/
disoriented*
Mary
Ainsworth
*Added later
Psychologist Mary Ainsworth conducted landmark research on attachment behaviors in infants She developed an experimental method called the “strange situation” to assess the quality of attachment between 1-2-year-old infants and their caregivers. The strange situation puts infants through a series of short separations and reunions with their caregivers, typically their mothers.
As a result, Ainsworth concluded that attachment falls into three patterns: secure, insecure-avoidant, and insecure-resistant. Later studies introduced a fourth variation, the disorganized/disoriented type (Type D).
Some parents have a concern that putting their children in day care will interfere with attachment relationships. Research has not supported this concern, and in fact has found that high-quality center-based day care is associated with many positive developmental outcomes.
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Many factors influence a child’s development,
including peers, parents, siblings, authority figures,
and genetics
The important
influence of fathers
Cultural differences
in parenting
© Tony Freeman/PhotoEdit
The influence of fathers has been given less importance in research literature, but children whose fathers share meals with them, spend leisure time with them, and help with homework are more academically successful than children with less-engaged fathers.
Children in two-parent households (heterosexual or same-sex parents) do better academically than children raised in houses where mothers live with an unmarried heterosexual partner or single-mother households. Be careful, however, not to generalize to all situations or circumstances with this research.
Fathers tend to provide less basic care and engage in more physical play than mothers.
African-American families tend to utilize stronger kinship bonds.
Traditional Hispanic families operate with the expectation that the father is the provider and protector of the family, while the mother is responsible for childcare.
Asian cultures emphasize respect for the parents’ authority, particularly the father, and warm relationships with the mother.
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| Baumrind’s Styles of Parenting | |||
| Authoritative Style | Authoritarian Style | Permissive Style | |
| Limit setting | High | High | Low |
| Style of discipline | Reasoning | Forceful | Lax |
| Maturity expectations | High | High | Low |
| Communications with children | High | Low | Moderate |
| Warmth and support | High | Low | High |
What type of parent do you want to be?
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Rely on reason, not force
Show warmth
Listen to children’s opinions
Set mature but reasonable expectations
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Becoming an authoritative parent involves developing the ability to listen to your children, reason with them, and offer guidance and support, while maintaining a high but reasonable expectations for children’s behaviors.
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Stages of
Psychosocial Development
Erik
Erikson
Theorist Erik Erikson proposed a stage theory of psychosocial development based. Stage theories assume that individuals progress through specified stages in a particular order because each stage builds on the previous one. They also assume that progress through the stages is strongly related to age and that development is marked by major discontinuities or abrupt shifts that bring about dramatic changes in behavior.
Erikson theorized that there are eight stages of psychosocial development, which span the lifespan. He held that there is a specific life challenge or developmental crisis that defines each stage, and that each of these challenges or crises can resolve in a positive or negative direction with respect to the person’s psychosocial development.
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Infancy:
Birth to 1 year
Toddlerhood:
Years 1-3
Preschool:
3 to 6 years
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Elementary
School:
6 to 12 years
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Trust Versus
Mistrust
Can I trust that
others will meet
my needs?
Autonomy
Versus Shame
and Doubt
Can I do things
on my own?
Initiative
Versus Guilt
Do I take the
initiative and
accomplish
what I set out
to do?
Industry
Versus
Inferiority
Am I confident
in myself and
seek out
challenges or
do I feel inferior
and pull away
from them?
Here we see Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development during childhood.
In stage 1, trust vs. mistrust, the infant in its first year of life must depend solely on its caregiver, which should lead to a trusting view of the world.
[click to view next stage]
In stage 2, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, the child begins to take personality responsibility and should acquire a sense of self sufficiency.
[click to view next stage]
In stage 3, initiative vs. guilt, children should learn to get along with family members, leading to self confidence.
[click to view next stage]
In stage 4, industry vs. inferiority, children must function socially outside of the bounds of their family, from which a sense of competence should evolve.
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Cognitive
Development
Jean
Piaget
Swiss developmentalist Jean Piaget made a landmark contribution to psychology’s understanding of cognitive development, asserting that interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think. This progression in thinking occurs through the complementary processes of assimilation (incorporating novel objects and new experiences in terms of existing mental structures without changing them) and accommodation (changing existing mental structures to accommodate new experiences).
Assimilation – Incorporating new information into existing cognitive schemas
Accommodation – Adapting existing cognitive schemas to fit with new information that does not readily fit into them.
Piaget proposed that children’s thought processes go through a series of four major stages.
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2 Through
7 Years
7 Through
11 Years
Birth Through
2 Years
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Age 11 Through
Adulthood
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Sensorimotor
Period
Engages the
world through
the senses and
motor behavior;
development
of object
permanence
Preoperational
Period
Development of
language allows
symbolic
representation
of objects and
actions, but
thought Is limited
by irreversibility,
centration, and
egocentrism
Concrete
Operational
Period
Able to perform
logical operations
tied to concrete
objects or events;
development
of conservation
Formal
Operational
Period
Able to engage in
abstract reasoning
and apply abstract
concepts and ideas
In the sensorimotor stage, a child gradually develops object permanence, which involves the recognition that objects continue to exist even when they are no longer visible.
[click to view next stage]
In the preoperational stage, children engage in symbolic thought through the use of language, but show characteristic flaws in their reasoning skills, such as irreversiblity (failure to see that superficial changes in an object’s appearance can be reversed), centration (tendency to focus on just one feature of a problem), and egocentrism (limited ability to share another person’s point of view or perspective]. The preoperational child also displays animistic thinking, the belief that inanimate objects are living and have feelings, just like oneself.
[click to view next stage]
The concrete operational stage is characterized by the ability to perform operations by applying logical thought, such as reversing or mentally undoing an action. Children in the concrete operational stage are able to focus on more than one feature of a problem simultaneously, a process called decentration. These new cognitive skills lead to the development of conservation, or recognition that the quantity of a substance does not change just because its superficial appearance is changed.
[click to view next stage]
The formal operational period is marked by the ability to use and apply abstract concepts such as justice, love, and free will.
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Source: Adapted from Berger & Thompson, 1995.
Here are some examples of the types of tasks Piaget used to evaluate whether a child had developed the principle of conservation.
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This video shows children at Piaget’s sensorimotor stage.
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This video shows children at Piaget’s preoperational stage.
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This video shows children at Piaget’s concrete operational stage.
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This video shows children at Piaget’s formal operational stage.
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How do children come to understand their
social world?
Cultural learning acquired through
social interactions
Emphasized role of culture in development
of understanding of world
Social learning occurs within a zone of proximal development and through scaffolding by a
more-skilled individual
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In contrast to Piaget, Vygotsky emphasized the importance of culture and social interactions in cognitive development.
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Module 9.4
Adolescence
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© Elena Zidkova/Shutterstock.com
While many define adolescence as the period between 12 and 18 years of age, it may be better thought of as a “transition” period between childhood and adulthood that is not neatly bound by a specific age range.
Adolescence is a time of growth, but also of stress. What are some sources of stress in the life of the adolescent?
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Source: Adapted from Seifert, Hoffnung, & Hoffnung, 2000.
Puberty, which marks the beginning of adolescence, is the stage during which reproductive functions reach full maturity. It is during puberty that the primary sex characteristics, the structures necessary for reproduction, develop fully.
In females, the onset of puberty is signaled by menarche – the fist occurrence of menstruation. In males, it is signaled by sperm production.
At this time, males begin to show acne, facial and body hair, voice change, muscle development, and ability to ejaculate.
Females also develop acne, as well as body hair, breast development, rounded contours, enlargement of the uterus, clitoris, and labia, as well as menstruation.
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Earlier maturation
Athletic advantages
More positive self-esteem
Later maturation
Less popular
Subject to ridicule or becoming socially ostracized
More likely to engage in deviant social behavior
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Effects of early maturation tend to affect boys and girls differently. Is this due to biological differences or to social and emotional factors?
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Earlier maturation
Unwelcome sexual attention
Feels that no longer “fits in” with peers
Lower self-esteem
More negative body image
More emotional and substance-abuse problems
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Piaget’s formal operations stage
Adolescent egocentrism
Imaginary audience
Personal fable
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© Jim West/The Image Works
The adolescent becomes capable of entering the stage of formal operations (not all do). But vestiges of egocentric thinking remain, as represented by the concepts of the imaginary audience and the personal fable.
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Moral
Reasoning
Lawrence
Kohlberg
Lawrence Kohlberg devised a stage theory of moral development based on subjects’ responses to hypothetical moral dilemmas. He was interested in a person’s reasoning, not necessarily their answer.
Kohlberg theorized that people progress through a series of three levels of moral development, each of which can be broken into 2 sublevels. Each stage represents a different way of thinking about right and wrong.
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Conventional
Level
Postconventional
Level
Preconventional
Level
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
Stage 6
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Obedience
and
Punishment
Orientation
Behavior is
good if it goes
unpunished
Instrumental
Purpose
Orientation
Behavior is
good if it serves
one’s needs
or interests
Good Boy/
Nice Girl
Orientation
Behavior is
good when
it meets
with other’s
approval
Concrete
Operational
Period
Behavior is
good when
it rigidly
conforms
to rules and
laws needed
to maintain
social order
Authority or
Law-and-Order
Orientation
Right and
wrong is based
on mutual
agreement
in the interest
of the common
good, not on
a rigid set of
absolute rules
and laws
Social
Contract
Orientation
Right and wrong
determined by
one’s own moral
code; universal
ethical principles
of justice take
precedence
over rules
and laws
Universal
Ethical
Principles
Orientation
Younger children at the preconventional level think in terms of external authority – acts are considered wrong or right based on whether or not they are punished for them.
Older children who have reached the conventional level of moral reasoning see rules as necessary for maintaining social order.
Adolescence represents the move to the postconventional level of moral reasoning, where acts are individually judged by a personal code of ethics.
Criticisms of Kohlberg’s model
- Moral reasoning and moral behaviors are not always consistent with each other
- Is moral development more continuous or actually stage-based?
- Is postconventional thinking too subjective to Kohlberg’s opinions of what is and is not moral?
- Is his theory biased because it is based on cultural (Western) and gender (male) grounds?
Carol Gilligan has proposed a different model that suggests men are oriented toward “justice” while women are oriented toward “care.” Research suggests that there are some gender differences, but not as stark as Gilligan may have suggested.
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This video explains moral development, and shows children’s responses to moral dilemmas.
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Stage 5
Adolescence
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Erikson and
The Challenge
Of Identity
Versus
Role Diffusion
Who am I
and where
am I going?
According to theorist Erik Erikson, the key challenge of adolescence is to form a clear sense of ego identity – a clear and stable sense of who we are, what we believe in, and where we are headed in life.
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Peer Relationships
Adolescent Sexuality
© Brendan O'Sullivan/Photolibrary/Getty Images
Peer relationships in adolescence are important for a number of purposes: Helping to learn about relating to/fitting in with others; bolstering self-esteem and emotional adjustment; and learning about themselves.
Parental concerns about children “running with the wrong crowd” are valid, but can be offset by close parent-teen relationships and communication.
Adolescent sexuality is a challenge that all must negotiate, and it is particularly difficult for non-heterosexual adolescents.
Sexual intercourse frequency has declined, as has teen pregnancy, in recent years, but sexual exploration in adolescence is still a topic the requires attention.
Some recommendations for increasing sexual restraint include:
Living in an in-tact family
Having family with low conflict levels
Having at least one parent who is a college graduate
Placing importance on religion and attendance at religious services
Having reduced exposure to sexual content (magazines, television shows, music, video games)
Self-acceptance is an important part of the “coming out” process for gay adolescents, and acceptance from peers and family members can help to facilitate this and enhance positive self-directed feelings and self-esteem.
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Module 9.5
Early and Middle
Adulthood
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Reaches a peak in early adulthood
Cognitive changes
Changes in fluid intelligence
Changes in crystallized intelligence
Declines in some types of memory functioning
Physical changes
Loss of lean body tissue, especially muscle
Women experience menopause
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What are some of the changes that occur during adulthood in physical and cognitive development?
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© Cengage Learning
Fluid intelligence shows the greatest changes as we age. We become less capable of solving problems quickly, remembering new information, solving puzzles and analyzing spatial relationships, and applying reasoning skills to hypothetical problems.
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© Cengage Learning
Yet crystallized intelligence, the type of intelligence represented by accumulated knowledge and skills, including numerical and verbal abilities, remains relatively intact as we age and may even increase in some respects (expanded vocabulary).
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Loss of lean body tissue, particularly muscle,
begins in the 20s
Loss of 30% of muscle cells between 20 and
70 years of age
Menopause typically occurs in the 40s or 50s
for women
Men experience a decline of testosterone, but it
is gradual and men usually remain fertile well into
later adulthood
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Early
Adulthood
Middle
Adulthood
Stage 6
Stage 7
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Intimacy
Versus
Isolation
Am I ready to
form an intimate
relationship
with another
person?
Generativity
Versus
Stagnation
What will I
give back to
the younger
generation?
According to Erikson, early and middle adulthood each involve a single stage of psychosocial development marked by these life challenges or crises:
Intimacy vs. isolation concerns the challenged involved in sharing emotional intimacy with others, which should resolve in the formation of strong intimate relationships marked by empathy and openness.
Generativity vs. stagnation involves concern for future generations, resulting in unselfish guidance to younger people (versus remaining stagnant in a state of self-absorption).
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Module 9.6
Late Adulthood
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Source: Center for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, Health, United States, 2007, Figure 1.
Number in millions
Year
10
20
30
40
50
60
1950
1960
1980
1970
1990
2000
2010
2020
2030
2040
2050
70
80
90
100
Projected
65+ years
75+ years
The numbers of Americans in the 65+ age range has rising steadily and is expected to continue to do through the first half of the 21st century.
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General decline in sensory and motor abilities
Physical changes
Cognitive changes
Declines in performance
on fluid intelligence-
related tasks
Declines in memory functioning
Creativity does not necessarily decline
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© Journal-Courier/Clayton Stalter/The Image Works
How do we change as we age during late adulthood? What can we do to best compensate for these changes?
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Age related physical changes include changes in appearance, neuron loss, sensory loss, and hormonal changes. Research indicates that menopause is not as problematic as once thought.
Cognitive functioning research indicates that general mental ability remains fairly stable. Fluid intelligence is more likely to decline with age, while crystallized intelligence remains stable or increases.
Mental speed declines in late adulthood, and memory losses have been reported in many studies. These are moderate and variable.
This video shows declining mental acuity in aging adults, as well as measures taken to prevent the decline.
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© Victoria Roberts/www.cartoonbank.com
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Some people develop dementia in late adulthood,
most often as the result of Alzheimer’s Disease (AD)
AD is one of the leading causes of death in older
adults in the U.S.
Symptoms include
Severe memory loss
Changes in cognition (judgment, reasoning) and personality
Physical changes in the brain
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Alzheimer’s disease is a brain disease of unknown origin; it is not a consequence of normal aging.
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Stage 8
Late
Adulthood
Keys to
Successful Aging
1. Selective optimization
with compensation
2. Optimism
3. Self-challenge
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Integrity
Versus
Despair
Has my life
been full and
meaningful
or filled
with regret?
According to Erikson, late adulthood involves one stage of psychosocial development marked by these life challenges or crises:
Integrity vs. despair involves overcoming the tendency to dwell on mistakes of the past and sense of despair as death draws near, versus the achievement of a sense of completeness or integrity about one’s life experiences and acceptance of the finality of death.
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Kübler-Ross’s stages of dying
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Final acceptance
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Psychiatrist Elisabeth Kübler-Ross identified five stages of dying based on interviews with patients facing impending death. Not all patients facing impending death go through each of the stages, or necessarily the same order of stages. Nonetheless, this is a useful framework for understanding the psychological effects of facing impending death.
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Applying Psychology in Daily Life
Living Longer,
Healthier Lives
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Develop healthy exercise
and nutrition habits
Stay involved and help others
Manage stress
Exercise the mind
Practice healthy habits
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